Bier haus 200. .pdf version of this page
In this review, we'll look at significance testing, using mostly the t-test as a guide. As you read educational research, you'll encounter t-test and ANOVA statistics frequently. Part I reviews the basics of significance testing as related to the null hypothesis and p values. Part II shows you how to conduct a t-test, using an online calculator. Part III deal s with interpreting t-test results. Part IV is about reporting t-test results in both text and table formats and concludes with a guide to interpreting confidence intervals.
What is Statistical Significance?
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The terms 'significance level' or 'level of significance' refer to the likelihood that the random sample you choose (for example, test scores) is not representative of the population. The lower the significance level, the more confident you can be in replicating your results. Significance levels most commonly used in educational research are the .05 and .01 levels. If it helps, think of .05 as another way of saying 95/100 times that you sample from the population, you will get this result. Similarly, .01 suggests that 99/100 times that you sample from the population, you will get the same result. These numbers and signs (more on that later) come from Significance Testing, which begins with the Null Hypothesis.
Part I: The Null Hypothesis
We start by revisiting familiar territory, the scientific method. We'll start with a basic research question: How does variable A affect variable B? The traditional way to test this question involves:
Step 1. Develop a research question.
Step 2. Find previous research to support, refute, or suggest ways of testing the question.
Step 3. Construct a hypothesis by revising your research question:
| Hypothesis | Summary | Type |
| H1: A = B | There is no relationship between A and B | Null |
| H2: A ≠ B | There is a relationship between A and B. Here, there is a relationship, but we don't know if it is positive or negative. | Alternate |
| H3: A < B | There is a negative relationship between A and B. Here, the < suggests that the less A is involved, the better B. | Alternate |
| H4: A > B | There is a positive relationship between A and B. Here, the > suggests that the more B is involved, the better A. | Alternate |
Step 4. Test the null hypothesis.To test the null hypothesis, A = B, we use a significance test. The italicized lowercase p you often see, followed by > or < sign and a decimal (p ≤ .05) indicate significance. In most cases, the researcher tests the null hypothesis, A = B, because is it easier to show there is some sort of effect of A on B, than to have to determine a positive or negative effect prior to conducting the research. This way, you leave yourself room without having the burden of proof on your study from the beginning.
Step 5. Analyze data and draw a conclusion.Testing the null hypothesis leaves two possibilities:
| Outcome | Wording | Type |
| A = B | Fail to reject the null. We find no relationship between A and B. | Null |
| A =, <, or > B | Reject the null. We find a relationship between A and B. | Alternate |
Step 6. Communicate results.See Wording results, below.
Part II: Conducting a t-test (for Independent Means)
So how do we test a null hypothesis? One way is with a t-test. A t-test asks the question,
'Is the difference between the means of two samples different (significant) enough to say that some other characteristic (teaching method, teacher, gender, etc.) could have caused it?'
To conduct a t-test using an online calculator, complete the following steps:
Step 1. Compose the Research Question.
Step 2. Compose a Null and an Alternative Hypothesis.
Step 3. Obtain two random samples of at least 30, preferably 50, from each group.
Step 4. Conduct a t-test:
- Go to http://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/ttest1.cfm
- For #1, check 'Enter mean, SD and N.'
- For #2, label your groups and enter data. You will need to have mean and SD. N is group size.
- For #3, check 'Unpaired t test.'
- For #4, click 'Calculate now.'
Step 5. Interpret the results (see below).
Step 6. Report results in text or table format (see below).
- Get p from 'P value and statistical significance:' Note that this is the actual value.
- Get the confidence interval from 'Confidence interval:'
- Get the t and df values from 'Intermediate values used in calculations:'
- Get Mean, and SD from 'Review your data.'
Part III. Interpreting a t-test (Understanding the Numbers)
| t | tells you a t-test was used. |
| (98) | tells you the degrees of freedom (the sample – # of tests performed). |
| 3.09 | is the 't statistic' – the result of the calculation. |
| p ≤ .05 | is the probability of getting the observed score from the sample groups. This the most important part of this output to you. |
| If this sign | It means all these things |
| p≥ .05 | likely to be a result of chance (same as saying A = B) |
| difference is not significant | |
| null is correct | |
| 'fail to reject the null' | |
| There is no relationship between A and B. | |
| If this sign | It means all these things |
| p ≤.05 | not likely to be a result of chance (same as saying A ≠ B) |
| difference is significant | |
| null is incorrect | |
| 'reject the null' | |
| There is a relationship between A and B. |
Note: We acknowledge that the average scores are different. With a t-test we are deciding if that difference is significant (is it due to sampling error or something else?).
Understanding the Confidence Interval (CI)
The Confidence Interval (CI) of a mean is a region within which a score (like mean test score) may be said to fall with a certain amount of 'confidence.' The CI uses sample size and standard deviation to generate a lower and upper number that you can be 95% sure will include any sample you take from a set of data.
Consider Georgia's AYP measure, the CRCT. For a science CRCT score, we take several samples and compare the different means. After a few calculations, we could determine something like. . .the average difference (mean) between samples is -7.5, with a 95% CI of -22.08 to 6.72. In other words, among all students' science CRCT scores, 95 out of 100 times we take group samples for comparison (for example by year, or gender, etc.), one of the groups, on average will be 7.5 points lower than the other group. We can be fairly certain that the difference in scores will be between -22.08 and 6.72 points.
Part IV. Wording Results
Wording Results in Text
In text, the basic format is to report: population (N), mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) for both samples, t value, degrees freedom (df), significance (p), and confidence interval (CI.95)* .
Example 1:p ≤ .05, or Significant Results
Among 7th graders in Lowndes County Schools taking the CRCT reading exam (N = 336), there was a statistically significant difference between the two teaching teams, team 1 (M = 818.92, SD = 16.11) and team 2 (M = 828.28, SD = 14.09), t(98) = 3.09, p ≤ .05, CI.95 -15.37, -3.35. Therefore, we reject the null hypothesis that there is no difference in reading scores between teaching teams 1 and 2.
Example 2: p ≥ .05, or Not Significant Results
Among 7th graders in Lowndes County Schools taking the CRCT science exam (N = 336), there was no statistically significant difference between female students (M = 834.00, SD = 32.81) and male students (841.08, SD = 28.76), t(98) = 1.15 p ≥ .05, CI.95 -19.32, 5.16. Therefore, we fail to reject the null hypothesis that there is no difference in science scores between females and males.
Wording Results in APA Table Format
Table 1. Comparison of CRCT 7th Grade Science Scores by Gender
| Gender | n | Mean | SD | t | df | p | 95% Confidence Interval |
| Female | 50 | 834.00 | 32.81 | – | – | – | Dark knight online game. – |
| Male | 50 | Vampire vs werewolf game. 841.08 | 28.76 | – | – | – | – |
| Total | 100 | 837.54 | 30.90 | 1.14 | 98 | .2540 | -19.32 – 5.16 |
Note: On the Web site, this appears blocked and should not be. See the .pdf for the correct format.
What Does Ty Mean In Texting Lingo
11 March 2020, 20:20 | Updated: 3 November 2020, 10:42
The two index fingers together emoji, which started on TikTok, has now been turned into a meme and is taking over Twitter.
TikTok has become the new go-to hub for trends, challenges and dance crazes and it's also introduced a number of new phrases that are now spreading to Twitter and Instagram.
One of those you may have already heard is 'CEO'. 'CEO' is basically a new way of saying 'Queen of being iconic' or 'Queen of having a sword' (as one would usually describe Carly Rae Jepsen, for example.) On TikTok, you'll see comments like 'CEO of drinking kombucha' or 'CEO of saving the turtles.' You get the drift..
What Does B4 Mean In Texting
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But today, we're here to discuss a new meme trend on the app, and it involves two finger emojis pointing to each other. What does it mean? And where did it come from?
What does 👉👈 mean on TikTok?
So, what do the two finger emojis pointing at each other actually mean? The emoji phrase has now made it over to Twitter where everyone is just as confused.
The majority of people agree that it means 'shy'. As if you were twiddling your fingers together, nervously. The emojis can often be paired with the 🥺emoji too, for extra nervous vibes.
The emoji sequence can be used if you're about to ask someone a soft, yet risky question, or if you're just feeling hella shy.
Here it is in full effect:
just wanna talk to you
😔
👉👈
🥺
what if 👉👈
we washed our hands together
jk
unless?
hey uhh 🥺👉🏼👈🏼 would you be okay if I put my Minecraft bed next to yours?
— C9 Keeoh (@Keeoh) March 5, 2020What Does Lyt Mean In Texting
These bitches be shy
😔
👉👈
👚
👖
👟🧦
I be bold
🤪
👈👉
👚
👖
🧦👟
Other explanations claim that the emojis mean you're horny, and Urban Dictionary – which can be edited by anyone, FYI – also says that the emojis can be used to mean 'gay sex'. So there's also that.
Bye.
